
The existence of God is perhaps the most enduring and fiercely debated question in human history Credit: Stone RF/Fred de Noyelle
Twenty years ago, Richard Dawkins published his international best-seller The God Delusion, thus establishing “New Atheism” as a major cultural force. Over the ensuing decade, other authors – such as Christopher Hitchens, Sam Harris, Lawrence Krauss and Daniel Dennett – seized the popular imagination with their respective arguments about why belief in the divine is untenable.
The physicists among them argued that the universe could be explained “from nothing”. The biologists argued that Darwinian explanations of “apparent design” in living organisms make appeals to an actual designing intelligence unnecessary. Thus, Dawkins concluded: “God almost certainly does not exist.”
Evolutionary biologist Richard Dawkins is one of the world’s most prominent atheists Credit: Jay Williams
But now, two decades on, the influence of the New Atheists has waned. Former adherents, most notably Ayaan Hirsi Ali, have repudiated atheism entirely and embraced the Christian faith. Others, such as Alex O’Connor, the hugely popular atheist YouTuber and Steven Bartlett, the businessman turned podcaster, have moderated their outlooks too. Ironically, even Dawkins admitted in 2024 he feels “at home” in the Christian “ethos” – though he still firmly rejects the existence of God.
As many atheist philosophers (such as the eminent John Gray) have noted, the New Atheists’ philosophical arguments were never very good. Moreover, their arguments seemed strangely anachronistic following many of the great scientific discoveries of the 20th century.
Consider first modern cosmology. Cosmologists have discovered that the universe, contrary to the expectations of those who long portrayed it as eternal, probably had a beginning. Multiple lines of evidence from observational astronomy support this conclusion. Developments in theoretical physics (such as the Borde-Guth-Vilenkin theorem, which states that any universe that is expanding – as ours is – cannot be infinite in the past), also back it up.
Nobel laureate Arno Penzias, who helped make a key discovery supporting the Big Bang theory, noted the obvious connection between its affirmation of a cosmic beginning and the concept of divine creation. “The best data we have are exactly what I would have predicted, had I nothing to go on but the five books of Moses…[and] the Bible as a whole,” he wrote in 1978.
Atheist physicists Lawrence Krauss and Stephen Hawking claimed to explain the beginning of the universe from “nothing”, but their “nothing” turned out to be a set of mathematical laws that allegedly pre-existed (or existed independently of) the material universe. But maths has no causal power. Mathematical equations are inherently conceptual. Thus, the attempt to circumvent the problem of the beginning with what was called “quantum cosmology” led inexorably back to the need for a pre-existing mind. Prof Stephen Hawking, who died in 2018, did not believe in God Credit: Karwai Tang/Getty Images
Second, physicists have discovered that we live in a kind of “Goldilocks universe”. In other words, the fundamental laws and parameters of physics are finely tuned against all odds to make a life-friendly universe. Even slight alterations of many independent factors – such as the strength of gravitational and electromagnetic attraction, the masses of elementary particles, or the initial arrangement of matter and energy in the universe – would render life impossible.
Not surprisingly, many physicists have concluded that this improbable “fine-tuning” points to a cosmic “fine-tuner”. As Cambridge astrophysicist Sir Fred Hoyle, previously a staunch atheist, argued: “A common sense interpretation of the data suggests that a super intellect has monkeyed with physics” to make life possible.
To explain fine-tuning, some physicists have postulated a vast number of universes. This “multiverse” idea portrays our universe as the outcome of a grand lottery in which some mechanism spits out billions and billions of universes – so many that ours, with its improbable combination of life-conducive factors, would eventually have to arise.
Yet multiverse advocates overlook an obvious problem. All such proposals – whether based on “inflationary cosmology” or “string theory” – postulate universe-generating mechanisms that themselves require prior unexplained fine-tuning (thus taking us back to the need for an ultimate fine-tuner).
Third, discoveries in molecular biology have revealed digital code in even the simplest living cells. Francis Crick and James Watson elucidated the structure of the DNA molecule in 1953. Crick then developed his famed “sequence hypothesis”. He proposed that chemical constituents in DNA function like letters in a written language, or digital symbols in computer code.
Computer code depends upon a precise sequence of zeros and ones. Similarly, the DNA molecule’s ability to direct the assembly of crucial protein molecules depends upon specific arrangements of chemical constituents (called “bases”) along the spine of the double helix.
As Dawkins has acknowledged: “The machine code of the genes is uncannily computer-like.” Or as Microsoft co-founder Bill Gates explains: “DNA is like a computer program, but far, far more advanced than any software we’ve ever created.”
Richard Dawkins’ God Delusion was a publishing phenomenon
No theory of undirected chemical evolution has explained the origin of the digital information in DNA (or RNA) needed to build the first cell from simpler non-living chemicals – as Dawkins has acknowledged. Instead, our uniform and repeated experience – the basis of scientific reasoning – establishes that systems possessing functional or digital information invariably arise from intelligent causes. As information theorist Henry Quastler observed, “information is habitually associated with conscious activity”.
Materialists also reject the idea of a designing mind because no such entity can be directly observed. Yet scientists often infer unobservable entities – physical fields, subatomic particles, past evolutionary events, subsurface geological features, the Big Bang – based upon the explanatory power of those postulated entities or events.
Dark matter, for example, which has been in the news of late, was first inferred not because it could be seen, but because – if it existed – it would explain the otherwise unexplainable motions of galaxies within distant galaxy clusters. The fact is that scientists often infer unobservable causes from their observable effects, and the inference to intelligent design from the observable features of living cells has this same character.
Dawkins has claimed that invoking a designing mind to explain the complexity of life would violate Ockham’s razor (the principle that the simplest explanation is usually correct). One should never invoke something more complex to explain something less complex, he avers. Yet this argument implies that archaeologists should not, for example, have invoked the mind of a scribe to explain the inscriptions on the Rosetta stone.
Dr Stephen Meyer was featured in The Story of Everything, a 2026 documentary about the origins of humanity and the cosmos
In fact, Ockham’s razor does not prohibit invoking the activity of complex entities (such as a mind) to explain complex systems or the features of artifacts. Instead, it cautions against invoking complex or convoluted hypotheses – ones that posit many explanatory entities (as the multiverse does) to explain facts that can be explained more simply by positing a single cause or entity.
Oddly, Dawkins himself once acknowledged the cell might contain a “signature of intelligence” – although he attributed that possible signature to a complex alien intelligence. As he mused, “it could be that somewhere in the universe, a civilisation evolved ... and designed a form of life that they seeded on to this planet”.
But invoking alien intelligence as the source of life on Earth does nothing to explain how life, and the information needed to produce it, first arose elsewhere. This “alien designer” hypothesis just kicks that ultimate question out into space.
It is, along with the multiverse and the “universe from nothing” idea, illustrative of the growing strangeness of scientific atheism. Its proponents are reaching for increasingly exotic ideas to explain evidence that seems otherwise to point straightforwardly to a transcendent and intelligent creator. In other words: God.
Dr. Meyer is the author of Return of the God Hypothesis: Three Scientific Discoveries That Reveal the Mind Behind the Universe. He has a PhD in the philosophy of science from Cambridge University and is featured in the new film The Story of Everything, which was covered in the Telegraph.
DT.